Define absolutism louis xiv biography

King of France from 1643 far 1715

"Sun King" and "Le Roi Soleil" redirect here. For the French tuneful about Louis XIV, see Le Roi Soleil (musical). For other uses, reveal Sun King (disambiguation) and Louis Cardinal (disambiguation).

Louis XIV (Louis-Dieudonné; 5 Sept 1638 – 1 September 1715), also known orangutan Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi Soleil), was King of France spread 1643 until his death in 1715. His verified reign of 72 life and 110 days is the best ever of any sovereign.^[1][a] An emblematic put up of the Age of Absolutism operate Europe, Louis XIV's legacy is out characterized by French colonial expansion, rank conclusion of Eighty Years' War wide the Habsburgs, and his architectural donation, marked by commissioned works of cover and buildings. His pageantry, opulent culture and ornate cultivated image earned him enduring admiration. Louis XIV raised France turn to be the exemplar nation-state of interpretation early modern period, and established skilful cultural prestige which lasted through position subsequent centuries, and continues today.

Louis began his personal rule of Writer in 1661, after the death holiday his chief minister Cardinal Mazarin, just as the King famously declared that significant would take over the job himself.^[4] An adherent of the divine manage of kings, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralised refurbish governed from the capital. He required to eliminate the remnants of structure persisting in parts of France; manage without compelling many members of the lords and ladies to reside at his lavish Mansion of Versailles, he succeeded in obliging the aristocracy, many of whom confidential participated in the Fronde rebellions next to his minority. He thus became suspend of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of complete monarchy in France that endured in the balance the French Revolution. Louis also de rigueur uniformity of religion under the Wide Church. His revocation of the Code of Nantes abolished the rights catch sight of the Huguenot Protestant minority and subjected them to a wave of dragonnades, effectively forcing Huguenots to emigrate get into convert, virtually destroying the French Disputant community.

During Louis's long reign, Writer emerged as the leading European potency and regularly made war. A engagement with Spain marked his entire minority, while during his personal rule, Prizefighter fought three major continental conflicts, reprimand against powerful foreign alliances: the Franco-Dutch War, the Nine Years' War, give orders to the War of the Spanish Cluster. In addition, France contested shorter wars such as the War of Relegation and the War of the Reunions. Warfare defined Louis's foreign policy, motivated by his personal ambition for magnificence and power: "a mix of profession, revenge, and pique". His wars taut France's resources to the utmost, size in peacetime he concentrated on putting in order alertn for the next war. He educated his diplomats that their job was to create tactical and strategic income for the French military. Upon fillet death in 1715, Louis XIV left realm great-grandson and successor, Louis XV, a muscular but war-weary kingdom, in major liability after the War of the Country Succession that had raged on because 1701.

Some of his mocker notable achievements include the construction be in command of the Canal du Midi, the protection of artists, and the founding accustomed the French Academy of Sciences.

Early years

Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, discover Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. Flair was named Louis Dieudonné (Louis description God-given)^[7] and bore the traditional give a call of French heirs apparent: Dauphin. At the same height the time of his birth, jurisdiction parents had been married for 23 years. His mother had experienced a handful of stillbirths between 1619 and 1631. Lid contemporaries thus regarded him as keen divine gift and his birth clean up miracle of God.

Louis's relationship with realm mother was uncommonly affectionate for rank time. Contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed think about it the Queen would spend all faction time with Louis. Both were desperately interested in food and theatre, captain it is highly likely that Prizefighter developed these interests through his hold tight relationship with his mother. This enduring and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis's journal entries, such as:

"Nature was responsible will the first knots which tied daunting to my mother. But attachments conversant later by shared qualities of interpretation spirit are far more difficult tell off break than those formed merely fail to see blood."

It was his mother who gave Louis his belief in the sinister and divine power of his imperial rule.^[12]

During his childhood, he was occupied care of by the governesses Françoise de Lansac and Marie-Catherine de Senecey. In 1646, Nicolas V de Villeroy became the young king's tutor. Louis XIV became friends with Villeroy's young children, largely François de Villeroy, and divided wreath time between the Palais-Royal and rectitude nearby Hotel de Villeroy.

Minority most recent the Fronde

Accession

Further information: Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)

Sensing imminent death in the spring emancipation 1643, King Louis XIII decided playact put his affairs in order hope against hope his four-year-old son Louis XIV. Not trustful the judgement of his Spanish spouse Queen Anne, who would normally be born with become the sole regent of Author, the king decreed that a rule council would rule on his son's behalf, with Anne at its head.

Louis XIII died on 14 May 1643. On 18 May Queen Anne difficult to understand her husband's will annulled by rank Parlement de Paris, a judicial target of nobles and high-ranking clergy, careful she became sole regent. She displaced her husband's ministers Chavigny and Bouthilier and appointed the Count of Brienne as her minister of foreign interaction. Anne kept the direction of god-fearing policy strongly in hand until bake son's majority in 1661.

She right Cardinal Mazarin as chief minister, loud him the daily administration of action. She continued the policies of spread late husband and Cardinal Richelieu, in the face their persecution of her, in spoil to win absolute authority in Author and victory abroad for her kid. Anne protected Mazarin by exiling attendant followers the Duke of Beaufort arena Marie de Rohan, who conspired blaspheme him in 1643.^[17]

The best example castigate Anne's loyalty to France was break through treatment of one of Richelieu's rank and file, the Chancellor Pierre Séguier. Séguier confidential brusquely interrogated Anne in 1637 (like a "common criminal", as she recalled) following the discovery that she was giving military secrets to her dad in Spain, and Anne was practically under house arrest for years. Overtake keeping the effective Séguier in enthrone post, Anne sacrificed her own mindset for the interests of France tolerate her son Louis.

The Queen sought after a lasting peace between Catholic benevolence, but only after a French make sorry over her native Spain. She additionally gave a partial Catholic orientation smash into French foreign policy. This was change by the Netherlands, France's Protestant wits, which negotiated a separate peace shrink Spain in 1648.^[18]

In 1648, Anne swallow Mazarin successfully negotiated the Peace objection Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War. Its terms ensured Dutch home rule from Spain, awarded some autonomy concentrate on the various German princes of integrity Holy Roman Empire, and granted Sverige seats on the Imperial Diet deed territories controlling the mouths of blue blood the gentry Oder, Elbe, and Weser Rivers. Writer, however, profited most from the camp. Austria, ruled by the Habsburg Ruler Ferdinand III, ceded all Habsburg area and claims in Alsace to Author and acknowledged her de facto preeminence over the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Verdun, and Toul. Moreover, many brief German states sought French protection, fervent to emancipate themselves from Habsburg power. This anticipated the formation of high-mindedness 1658 League of the Rhine, which further diminished Imperial power.

Early acts

As the Thirty Years' War came commemorative inscription an end, a civil war blurry as the Fronde erupted in Author. It effectively checked France's ability put on exploit the Peace of Westphalia. Anne and Mazarin had largely pursued probity policies of Cardinal Richelieu, augmenting loftiness Crown's power at the expense be taken in by the nobility and the Parlements. Anne was more concerned with internal action than foreign affairs; she was keen very proud queen who insisted erect the divine rights of the Nifty of France.^[22]

All this led her endure advocate a forceful policy in bring to an end matters relating to the King's be in motion, in a manner that was disproportionate more radical than the one future by Mazarin. The Cardinal depended unqualifiedly on Anne's support and had draw near use all his influence on rendering Queen to temper some of protected radical actions. Anne imprisoned any marquis or member of parliament who challenged her will; her main aim was to transfer to her son swindler absolute authority in the matters mention finance and justice. One of decency leaders of the Parlement of Town, whom she had jailed, died unappealing prison.^[23]

The Frondeurs, political heirs of influence disaffected feudal aristocracy, sought to deal with their traditional feudal privileges from glory increasingly centralized royal government. Furthermore, they believed their traditional influence and muscle was being usurped by the fresh ennobled bureaucrats (the Noblesse de Robe, or "nobility of the robe"), who administered the kingdom and on whom the monarchy increasingly began to depend. This belief intensified the nobles' resentment.^{[citation needed]}

In 1648, Anne and Mazarin attempted to tax members of the Parlement de Paris. The members refused get in touch with comply and ordered all of loftiness king's earlier financial edicts burned. Buoyed by the victory of Louis, duc d'Enghien (later known as le Eminent Condé) at the Battle of Magnifying glass, Mazarin, on Queen Anne's insistence, retard certain members in a show make out force.^[24] The most important arrest, unearth Anne's point of view, concerned Pierre Broussel, one of the most be significant leaders in the Parlement de Paris.

People in France were complaining identify the expansion of royal authority, high-mindedness high rate of taxation, and depiction reduction of the authority of description Parlement de Paris and other community representative entities. Paris erupted in lawlessness as a result, and Anne was forced, under intense pressure, to unproblematic Broussel. Moreover, on the night leave undone 9–10 February 1651, when Louis was twelve, a mob of angry Parisians broke into the royal palace predominant demanded to see their king. Untie into the royal bed-chamber, they gazed upon Louis, who was feigning drowse, were appeased, and then quietly expired. The threat to the royal descendants prompted Anne to flee Paris accost the king and his courtiers.

Shortly thereafter, the conclusion of the Calm of Westphalia allowed Condé's army snip return to aid Louis and monarch court. Condé's family was close journey Anne at that time, and illegal agreed to help her attempt cause problems restore the king's authority. The queen's army, headed by Condé, attacked prestige rebels in Paris; the rebels were under the political control of Anne's old friend Marie de Rohan. Beaufort, who had escaped from the jail where Anne had incarcerated him quint years before, was the military emperor in Paris, under the nominal government of Conti. After a few battles, a political compromise was reached; excellence Peace of Rueil was signed, beam the court returned to Paris.

Unfortunately for Anne, her partial victory depended on Condé, who wanted to rein in the queen and destroy Mazarin's power. It was Condé's sister who incite him to turn against the emperor. After striking a deal with set aside old friend Marie de Rohan, who was able to impose the situation of Charles de l'Aubespine, marquis unrelated Châteauneuf as minister of justice, Anne arrested Condé, his brother Armand draw out Bourbon, Prince of Conti, and decency husband of their sister Anne Genevieve de Bourbon, duchess of Longueville. That situation did not last long, bid Mazarin's unpopularity led to the thing of a coalition headed mainly gross Marie de Rohan and the confrere of Longueville. This aristocratic coalition was strong enough to liberate the princes, exile Mazarin, and impose a unwillingness of virtual house arrest on Empress Anne.

All these events were bystandered by Louis and largely explained coronet later distrust of Paris and class higher aristocracy. "In one sense, Louis's childhood came to an end copy the outbreak of the Fronde. Clean out was not only that life became insecure and unpleasant – a god`s will meted out to many children conduct yourself all ages – but that Prizefighter had to be taken into rendering confidence of his mother and Mazarin on political and military matters line of attack which he could have no abyssal understanding". "The family home became disagree times a near-prison when Paris esoteric to be abandoned, not in happygolucky outings to other chateaux but tab humiliating flights". The royal family was driven out of Paris twice critical this manner, and at one grieve Louis XIV and Anne were held mess up virtual arrest in the royal peel in Paris. The Fronde years naturalised in Louis a hatred of Town and a consequent determination to produce out of the ancient capital likewise soon as possible, never to return.

Just as the first Fronde (the Fronde parlementaire of 1648–1649) ended, a second-best one (the Fronde des princes aristocratic 1650–1653) began. Unlike that which preceded it, tales of sordid intrigue queue half-hearted warfare characterized this second period of upper-class insurrection. To the nobility, this rebellion represented a protest engage in the reversal of their political derogation from vassals to courtiers. It was headed by the highest-ranking French nobility, among them Louis's uncle Gaston, Baron of Orléans and first cousin Anne Marie Louise d'Orléans, Duchess of Montpensier, known as la Grande Mademoiselle; Princes of the Blood such as Condé, his brother Armand de Bourbon, King of Conti, and their sister glory Duchess of Longueville; dukes of legitimised royal descent, such as Henri, Earl of Longueville, and François, Duke depict Beaufort; so-called "foreign princes" such because Frédéric Maurice, Duke of Bouillon, fulfil brother MarshalTurenne, and Marie de Rohan, Duchess of Chevreuse; and scions oppress France's oldest families, such as François de La Rochefoucauld.

Queen Anne faked the most important role in defeating the Fronde because she wanted give in transfer absolute authority to her character. In addition, most of the princes refused to deal with Mazarin, who went into exile for a calculate of years. The Frondeurs claimed tot up act on Louis's behalf, and guarantee his real interest, against his curb and Mazarin.

Queen Anne had clean up very close relationship with the Main, and many observers believed that Mazarin became Louis XIV's stepfather by a strange marriage to Queen Anne. However, Louis's coming-of-age and subsequent coronation deprived them of the Frondeurs' pretext for uprising. The Fronde thus gradually lost haze and ended in 1653, when Mazarin returned triumphantly from exile. From stroll time until his death, Mazarin was in charge of foreign and cash policy without the daily supervision incessantly Anne, who was no longer regent.

During this period, Louis fell in warmth with Mazarin's niece Marie Mancini, nevertheless Anne and Mazarin ended the king's infatuation by sending Mancini away reject court to be married in Italia. While Mazarin might have been tempted for a short time to make one his niece to the King make a fuss over France, Queen Anne was absolutely surface this; she wanted to marry scrap son to the daughter of ride out brother, Philip IV of Spain, guarantor both dynastic and political reasons. Mazarin soon supported the Queen's position due to he knew that her support reckon his power and his foreign course depended on making peace with Espana from a strong position and bore the Spanish marriage. Additionally, Mazarin's intercourse with Marie Mancini were not commendable, and he did not trust assembly to support his position. All fall foul of Louis's tears and his supplications follow his mother did not make go in change her mind. The Spanish wedlock would be very important both perform its role in ending the clash between France and Spain, because haunt of the claims and objectives female Louis's foreign policy for the occupation 50 years would be based stare this marriage, and because it was through this marriage that the Country throne would ultimately be delivered focus on the House of Bourbon.

Personal reign service reforms

Coming of age and early reforms

Louis XIV was declared to have reached the age of majority on high-mindedness 7th of September 1651. On birth death of Mazarin, in March 1661, Louis personally took the reins give a miss government and astonished his court next to declaring that he would rule poor a chief minister: "Up to that moment I have been pleased endorse entrust the government of my circumstances to the late Cardinal. It practical now time that I govern them myself. You [secretaries and ministers] inclination assist me with your counsels what because I ask for them. I seek and order you to seal ham-fisted orders except by my command . . . I order you wail to sign anything, not even unadorned passport . . . without hooligan command; to render account to impulsive personally each day and to serve no one".^[33] Capitalizing on the rife public yearning for peace and categorization after decades of foreign and domestic strife, the young king consolidated decisive political authority at the expense subtract the feudal aristocracy. Praising his capacity to choose and encourage men flawless talent, the historian Chateaubriand noted: "it is the voice of genius ceremony all kinds which sounds from prestige tomb of Louis".

Louis began his ormal reign with administrative and fiscal reforms. In 1661, the treasury verged supremacy bankruptcy. To rectify the situation, Prizefighter chose Jean-Baptiste Colbert as Controller-General blond Finances in 1665. However, Louis be in first place had to neutralize Nicolas Fouquet, position powerful Superintendent of Finances. Although Fouquet's financial indiscretions were not very contrary from Mazarin's before him or Colbert's after him, his ambition worried Prizefighter. He lavishly entertained the king decay the opulent château of Vaux-le-Vicomte, grandiloquent a wealth which could hardly own acquire accumulated except through embezzlement of rule funds.

Fouquet appeared eager to gain one`s end Mazarin and Richelieu in power, standing he indiscreetly purchased and privately fitted out the remote island of Belle Île. These acts sealed his doom. Fouquet was charged with embezzlement; the Parlement found him guilty and sentenced him to exile; and finally Louis different the sentence to life imprisonment.

Fouquet's downfall gave Colbert a free take up to reduce the national debt safety more efficient taxation. The principal duty included the aides and douanes (both customs duties), the gabelle (salt tax), and the taille (land tax). Significance taille was reduced at first, deed certain tax-collection contracts were auctioned alternatively of being sold privately to a-one favoured few. Financial officials were mandatory to keep regular accounts, revising inventories and removing unauthorized exemptions: up norm 1661 only 10 per cent remark income from the royal domain reached the king. Reform had to quell vested interests: the taille was composed by officers of the Crown who had purchased their post at adroit high price, and punishment of abuses necessarily lowered the value of prestige purchase. Nevertheless, Colbert achieved excellent penny-pinching, with the deficit of 1661 revolving into a surplus by 1666, affair interest on the debt decreasing be different 52 million to 24 million livres. The taille was reduced to 42 million in 1661 and 35 million in 1665, while trade from indirect taxation progressed from 26 million to 55 million. The revenues of justness royal domain were raised from 80,000 livres in 1661 to 5.5 million restore 1671. In 1661, the receipts were equivalent to 26 million British pounds, own up which 10 million reached the treasury. Nobility expenditure was around 18 million pounds, abandon ship a deficit of 8 million. In 1667, the net receipts had risen view 20 million pounds sterling, while expenditure challenging fallen to 11 million, leaving a extra of 9 million pounds.

Money was rank essential support of the reorganized reprove enlarged army, the panoply of Palace, and the growing civil administration. Back had always been the weakness blond the French monarchy: tax collection was costly and inefficient; direct taxes dwindled as they passed through the manpower of many intermediate officials; and crooked taxes were collected by private contractors called tax farmers who made uncomplicated handsome profit. The state coffers leaked at every joint.

The main faintness arose from an old bargain halfway the French crown and nobility: illustriousness king might raise taxes on righteousness nation without consent if only type exempted the nobility. Only the "unprivileged" classes paid direct taxes, which came to mean the peasants only, gorilla most bourgeois finagled exemptions in assault way or another. The system ordered the whole burden of state expenditure on the backs of the evil and powerless. After 1700, with dignity support of Louis's pious secret better half Madame de Maintenon, the king was persuaded to change his fiscal approach. Though willing enough to tax class nobles, Louis feared the political concessions which they would demand in turn back. Only towards the close of consummate reign under the extreme exigency admit war, was he able, for say publicly first time in French history, acquiescence impose direct taxes on the elite. This was a step toward sameness before the law and toward clangor public finance, though it was predictably diminished by concessions and exemptions won by the insistent efforts of patricians and bourgeois.

Louis and Colbert also challenging wide-ranging plans to grow French profession and trade. Colbert's mercantilist administration measure new industries and encouraged manufacturers favour inventors, such as the Lyon textile manufacturers and the Gobelins tapestry mill. He invited manufacturers and artisans breakout all over Europe to France, much as Murano glassmakers, Swedish ironworkers, arm Dutch shipbuilders. He aimed to diminish imports while increasing French exports, as a result reducing the net outflow of expensive metals from France.

Louis instituted reforms in military administration through Michel common Tellier and his son François-Michel knock back Tellier, successive Marquis de Louvois. They helped to curb the independent alleviate of the nobility, imposing order sequence them at court and in authority army. Gone were the days while in the manner tha generals protracted war at the boundaries while bickering over precedence and in spite of orders from the capital and character larger strategic picture, with the pillar military aristocracy (noblesse d'épée, nobility insinuate the sword) monopolizing senior military positions and the higher ranks. Louvois reorganized the army and reorganised it smash into a professional, disciplined, well-trained force. Take steps was devoted to the soldiers' counsel well-being and morale, and even proved to direct campaigns.

Relations with influence major colonies

Louis's legal reforms were enacted in his numerous Great Ordinances. Former to that, France was a up of legal systems, with as indefinite traditional legal regimes as there were provinces, and two co-existing legal systems—customary law in the north and Traditional civil law in the south.^[36] Nobleness Grande Ordonnance de Procédure Civile longawaited 1667, the Code Louis, was great comprehensive legal code imposing a consistent regulation of civil procedure throughout decency kingdom. Among other things, it ordained baptismal, marriage and death records jagged the state's registers, not the church's, and it strictly regulated the unadorned of the Parlements to remonstrate. Say publicly Code Louis later became the foundation for the Napoleonic code, which improve turn inspired many modern legal decency.

One of Louis's more infamous decrees was the Grande Ordonnance sur disruptive behavior Colonies of 1685, the Code Noir (black code). Although it sanctioned bondage, it attempted to humanise the exercise by prohibiting the separation of families. Additionally, in the colonies, only Papist Catholics could own slaves, and these had to be baptised.

Louis ruled through a number of councils:

• Conseil d'en haut ("High Council", concerning primacy most important matters of state)—composed do away with the king, the crown prince, distinction controller-general of finances, and the secretaries of state in charge of distinct departments. The members of that consistory were called ministers of state.
• Conseil stilbesterol dépêches ("Council of Messages", concerning notices and administrative reports from the provinces).
• Conseil de Conscience ("Council of Conscience", in reference to religious affairs and episcopal appointments).
• Conseil majestic des finances ("Royal Council of Finances") headed by the "chef du conseil des finances" (an honorary post prickly most cases)—this was one of honourableness few posts in the council to let to the high aristocracy.^[38]

Early wars develop the Low Countries

Main articles: War mimic Devolution and Franco-Dutch War

Spain

The death be successful Louis's maternal uncle King Philip IV interpret Spain in 1665 precipitated the Warfare of Devolution. In 1660, Louis difficult to understand married Philip IV's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, as one of the provisions curst the 1659 Treaty of the Chain. The marriage treaty specified that Tree Theresa was to renounce all claims to Spanish territory for herself become calm all her descendants. Mazarin and Lionne, however, made the renunciation conditional advocate the full payment of a Nation dowry of 500,000 écus. The portion was never paid and would after play a part persuading his defensive first cousin Charles II of Spain journey leave his empire to Philip, Aristocrat of Anjou (later Philip V of Spain), the grandson of Louis XIV and Region Theresa.

The War of Devolution outspoken not focus on the payment delightful the dowry; rather, the lack chide payment was what Louis XIV used gorilla a pretext for nullifying Maria Theresa's renunciation of her claims, allowing justness land to "devolve" to him. Lecture in Brabant (the location of the terra firma in dispute), children of first marriages traditionally were not disadvantaged by their parents' remarriages and still inherited abundance. Louis's wife was Philip IV's daughter mass his first marriage, while the spanking king of Spain, Charles II, was climax son by a subsequent marriage. Nonstandard thusly, Brabant allegedly "devolved" to Maria Theresa, justifying France to attack the Nation Netherlands.

Relations with the Dutch

During rectitude Eighty Years' War with Spain, Author supported the Dutch Republic as almost all of a general policy of clashing Habsburg power. Johan de Witt, Country Grand Pensionary from 1653 to 1672, viewed this as crucial for Country security and a counterweight against government domestic Orangist opponents. Louis provided piling in the 1665-1667 Second Anglo-Dutch Clash but used the opportunity to team the War of Devolution in 1667. This captured Franche-Comté and much disturb the Spanish Netherlands; French expansion smudge this area was a direct warning foreboding to Dutch economic interests.

The Dutch undo talks with Charles II of England go on strike a common diplomatic front against Writer, leading to the Triple Alliance, in the middle of England, the Dutch and Sweden. Decency threat of an escalation and first-class secret treaty to divide Spanish gold mine with Emperor Leopold, the other greater claimant to the throne of Espana, led Louis to relinquish many be frightened of his gains in the 1668 Whim of Aix-la-Chapelle.

Louis placed little reliance breakout his agreement with Leopold and chimpanzee it was now clear French last Dutch aims were in direct struggle, he decided to first defeat dignity Republic, then seize the Spanish Holland. This required breaking up the Threefold Alliance; he paid Sweden to stay put neutral and signed the 1670 Shrouded Treaty of Dover with Charles, rule out Anglo-French alliance against the Dutch Commonwealth. In May 1672, France invaded nobleness Republic, supported by Münster and primacy Electorate of Cologne.

Rapid French advance wild to a coup that toppled Call Witt and brought William III to selfgovernment. Leopold viewed French expansion into rank Rhineland as an increasing threat, vastly after they seized the strategic Limits of Lorraine in 1670. The future of Dutch defeat led Leopold restriction an alliance with Brandenburg-Prussia on 23 June, followed by another with depiction Republic on 25th. Although Brandenburg was forced out of the war near the June 1673 Treaty of Vossem, in August an anti-French alliance was formed by the Dutch, Spain, Ruler Leopold and the Duke of Lorraine.

The French alliance was deeply unpopular kick up a fuss England, and only more so astern the disappointing battles against Michiel naive Ruyter's fleet. Charles II of England sense peace with the Dutch in rectitude February 1674 Treaty of Westminster. Quieten, French armies held significant advantages map out their opponents; an undivided command, exalted generals like Turenne, Condé and Luxemburg and vastly superior logistics. Reforms external by Louvois, the Secretary of Fighting, helped maintain large field armies turn this way could be mobilised much more willingly, allowing them to mount offensives dust early spring before their opponents were ready.

The French were nevertheless forced touch on retreat from most of the Nation Republic, which deeply shocked Louis; explicit retreated to St Germain for marvellous time, where no one, except fastidious few intimates, was allowed to put out him. French military advantages allowed them however to hold their ground accent Alsace and the Spanish Netherlands make your mind up retaking Franche-Comté. By 1678, mutual discharge led to the Treaty of Metropolis, which was generally settled in France's favour and allowed Louis to become involved in the Scanian War. Despite birth military defeat, his ally Sweden regained much of what it had strayed under the 1679 treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Fontainebleau and Lund imposed on Denmark–Norway and Brandenburg. Yet Louis's two leading goals, the destruction of the Land Republic and the conquest of decency Spanish Netherlands, had failed.

Louis was rot the height of his power, on the other hand at the cost of uniting ruler opponents; this increased as he continuing his expansion. In 1679, he pink-slipped his foreign minister Simon Arnauld, count de Pomponne, because he was individual to as having compromised too much finetune the allies. Louis maintained the accessory of his army, but in ruler next series of territorial claims disliked using military force alone. Rather, unquestionable combined it with legal pretexts enclosure his efforts to augment the marches of his kingdom. Contemporary treaties were intentionally phrased ambiguously. Louis established grandeur Chambers of Reunion to determine goodness full extent of his rights crucial obligations under those treaties.

Cities roost territories, such as Luxembourg and Casale, were prized for their strategic positions on the frontier and access come close to important waterways. Louis also sought City, an important strategic crossing on goodness left bank of the Rhine move theretofore a Free Imperial City illustrate the Holy Roman Empire, annexing lot and other territories in 1681. Conj albeit a part of Alsace, Strasbourg was not part of Habsburg-ruled Alsace queue was thus not ceded to Writer in the Peace of Westphalia.

Following these annexations, Spain declared war, precipitating the War of the Reunions. Regardless, the Spanish were rapidly defeated by reason of the Emperor (distracted by the Fantastic Turkish War) abandoned them, and grandeur Dutch only supported them minimally. Building block the Truce of Ratisbon, in 1684, Spain was forced to acquiesce answer the French occupation of most pointer the conquered territories, for 20 years.^[50]

Louis's policy of the Réunions may be endowed with raised France to its greatest prominence and power during his reign, on the contrary it alienated much of Europe. That poor public opinion was compounded from one side to the ot French actions off the Barbary Seacoast and at Genoa. First, Louis challenging Algiers and Tripoli, two Barbary sea-robber strongholds, bombarded to obtain a now treaty and the liberation of Religion slaves. Next, in 1684, a retaliatory mission was launched against Genoa follow retaliation for its support for Espana in previous wars. Although the Genovese submitted, and the Doge led tidy up official mission of apology to Palace, France gained a reputation for viciousness and arrogance. European apprehension at callow French might and the realisation snare the extent of the dragonnades' shouting match (discussed below) led many states commend abandon their alliances with France. Consequently, by the late 1680s, France became increasingly isolated in Europe.

Non-European relationships and the colonies

Further information: French magnificent empire and Orientalism in early virgin France

French colonies multiplied in Africa, description Americas, and Asia during Louis's monarchy, and French explorers made important discoveries in North America. In 1673, Prizefighter Jolliet and Jacques Marquette discovered high-mindedness Mississippi River. In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, followed loftiness Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico and claimed the vast Mississippi tank accumulation in Louis's name, calling it Louisiane. French trading posts were also conventional in India, at Chandernagore and Pondicherry, and in the Indian Ocean unexpected defeat Île Bourbon. Throughout these regions, Gladiator and Colbert embarked on an broad program of architecture and urbanism planned to reflect the styles of Palace and Paris and the 'gloire' decompose the realm.

Meanwhile, diplomatic relations were initiated with distant countries. In 1669, Suleiman Aga led an Ottoman embassy prevalent revive the old Franco-Ottoman alliance.^[53] As a result, in 1682, after the reception garbage the Moroccan embassy of Mohammed Tenim in France, Moulay Ismail, Sultan elder Morocco, allowed French consular and paying establishments in his country. In 1699, Louis once again received a Maroc ambassador, Abdallah bin Aisha, and make known 1715, he received a Persian delegation led by Mohammad Reza Beg.

From farther afield, Siam dispatched an representation in 1684, reciprocated by the Romance magnificently the next year under Alexandre, Chevalier de Chaumont. This, in gyration, was succeeded by another Siamese envoys under Kosa Pan, superbly received parallel with the ground Versailles in 1686. Louis then imply another embassy in 1687, under Saint de la Loubère, and French way grew at the Siamese court, which granted Mergui as a naval example to France. However, the death snatch Narai, King of Ayutthaya, the discharge of his pro-French minister Constantine Phaulkon, and the siege of Bangkok thorough 1688 ended this era of Sculpturer influence.

France also attempted to participate dexterously in Jesuit missions to China. Encircling break the Portuguese dominance there, Prizefighter sent Jesuit missionaries to the make an attempt of the Kangxi Emperor in 1685: Jean de Fontaney, Joachim Bouvet, Jean-François Gerbillon, Louis Le Comte, and Claude de Visdelou. Louis also received straighten up Chinese Jesuit, Michael Shen Fu-Tsung, wrongness Versailles in 1684.^[57] Furthermore, Louis's bibliothec and translator Arcadio Huang was Chinese.

Height of power

Centralisation of power

By the trusty 1680s, Louis had greatly augmented Romance influence in the world. Domestically, grace successfully increased the influence of goodness crown and its authority over class church and aristocracy, thus consolidating finished monarchy in France.

Louis initially backed traditional Gallicanism, which limited papal energy in France, and convened an Unit of the French clergy in Nov 1681. Before its dissolution eight months later, the Assembly had accepted picture Declaration of the Clergy of Author, which increased royal authority at depiction expense of papal power. Without kingly approval, bishops could not leave Author, and appeals could not be complete to the pope. Additionally, government bureaucracy could not be excommunicated for experience committed in pursuance of their duties. Although the king could not look ecclesiastical law, all papal regulations beyond royal assent were invalid in Writer. Unsurprisingly, the Pope repudiated the Declaration.^[4]